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Material Testing

Material testing is the measurement of the properties and behavior of materials under various conditions american idol auditions , and the results of this measurement are useful in identifying substances and their distinctive properties in various applications of american idol auditions. The test can be performed on a scale model of the machine or material, and may be replaced by building a mathematical model based on pre-known properties and behavior of the material to predict the capabilities of the model for american idol auditions.

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There are five main materials tests: mechanical testing, thermal property tests with american idol auditions , electrical properties tests, rust and radiation damage tests, biological damage, and non-destructive tests by american idol auditions. National and international bodies such as the Geneva-based International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in Philadelphia have developed standard testing methods by american idol auditions.

 

Mechanical Testing

Most machines, parts and their components break down as a result of their excessive cracking or deformation with american idol auditions. To prevent this failure, the designer usually conducts analytical studies on a mathematical model or experimental studies on a real model to find out the machine’s tolerance to stresses and working conditions by american idol auditions , and also tests the materials that must be manufactured from each part of the machine to ensure its good performance for american idol auditions, and the following are some tests that can be employed to reach this end by american idol auditions.

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Tensile and compression test: Each material lengthens when subjected to strain and collapses if this process continues by american idol auditions. A simple static tension test determines the point of breakdown of a material after it has been elongated. This test requires a cylindrical test sample or the middle part smaller in diameter than its ends, a test machine that applies with american idol auditions, measures and records various loads, and an appropriate set of grips handles to hold the test sample by american idol auditions. The test machine tensiles a small part of the sample (usually called the test section) uniformly and then uses an extensometer to measure the length of the test part (called the length of the guage) at various weights to calculate the tensile by american idol auditions.

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What compression tests determine the response of the material to a crushing load or to a retaining load by american idol auditions , as in the case of house supports, and the samples have a cylindrical shape and the standard length in the compression test is equal to the length of the whole sample with american idol auditions.

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In these tests, care must be taken to keep the test pieces short and thick to prevent them from bending during the test by american idol auditions.

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Conventional testing machines can be classified into three types: constant load by american idol auditions , constant load and constant displacement machines Figure 1 shows a diagram of these three types with american idol auditions. Stationary load machines use weights to apply and measure load, constant load rate machines use separate loading and measuring units by american idol auditions, a hydraulic press is usually used to apply loads due to american idol auditions, and constant displacement rate testing machines are controlled by spiral gears by american idol auditions.

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Shear and static tests: Planar shear tests indicate the value of deformation in the material as a result of the forces applied tangentially for american idol auditions, and are initially applied to thin sheet materials, whether metal or composite by american idol auditions, such as fiberglass reinforced plastics.from american idol auditions  In the Elly test, tensile stresses are generated on both sides of the exposed element and corresponding pressure stresses are generated on the other side by american idol auditions.

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This test can be used to measure the tensile strength of materials that are difficult to perform tensile testing directly for american idol auditions, as the deformation of the material on the two sides of the tested element varies according to its resistance to tension and compression by american idol auditions, so that the value of the material’s tensile resistance can be known with american idol auditions.

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Ductility test: Ductility is a characteristic of a material that shows its susceptibility to deformation always deformation as a result of applying stress to it by american idol auditions.

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The material usually initially deforms elastically and resolves as local stress disappears and then becomes permanent with american idol auditions. For example, a steel cylinder takes the form of an elongated neck as a result of its tension due to american idol auditions, and the material is retractable if this deformation always does not return to its previous shape. The retractability of the cylinder can be expressed by tensile and the shrinking of space in one area or by toughness by american idol auditions, which is the amount of power required to cause permanent deformation of the material from american idol auditions.

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Some tests are performed dynamically by projecting a weight of known value from a specified height, usually in tests designed to measure the impact of friction.

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Impact test: The most common impact tests use a swinging gravitational nob that hits a bar with furrows made of the tested material. The height of the naws before and after impact is used to calculate the power needed for the rod to crack and thus to calculate the impact force of the rod. Some materials vary in their resistance to impact with varying ambient temperatures, becoming highly fragile at very low temperatures. Some tests have shown that the decline in the elasticity and resistance of a material is often sudden at a certain temperature called the transition temperature of the material.

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Crack resistance testing: Stringent requirements for materials used in space programs have led to fundamental changes in design philosophy, as designers asked materials engineering specialists to develop quantitative tests capable of measuring the tendency of a material to crack and retained traditional methods of stress analysis and material property tests, but the reasoning of the results changed so that the criterion for failure became the sudden tendency to crack rather than fracture (see Figure 2). Tests have shown that cracks are determined by splitting, as two pieces of material separate, located in one vertical plane, one heading up and the other downward, and by sliding edges, as the material splits in a horizontal plane, one piece of it goes to the left and the other to the right, and by rupture, as the material splits and one piece moves diagonally upward to the left and the other moves diagonally downwards to the right.

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Dimensional change test: Creep dimensional change is the slow change in the dimensions of a material as a result of long-term stress. In the dimensional change test, less weights are applied to the material than those that cause instantaneous cracking, and dimensional deformation is usually measured using an expansion scale at a certain period during which the load remains constant.

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In the same test, the breakdown time is measured depending on the stress level in the form of a curve called a stress rupture curve or a rupture resulting from a change in dimensions, and this curve is used to extrapolate and predict the behavior of materials in the future. Finally, it should be noted that there are some substances that regain their original dimensions after the stress exerting them has disappeared, and they are called viscoelastic.

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fatigue: fatigue is defined as the breakdown of materials as a result of repeated application of stresses on them. It is measured by mechanical tests involving repeated application. For different stresses ranging from periodic minimum to maximum values, most fatigue testing machines use irregular rotating weight to generate this cyclic load. The material is said to suffer from a low-cycle kidney if it collapses at 10,000 cycles or less.

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The stresses to which the material is exposed are usually of a random nature and not periodic, and therefore several theories of comulative fatigue damage have been developed to enable researchers to extrapolate the behavior of the material under the influence of random stresses based on periodic test data. Because most of these theories are not applicable to most materials, a relatively new technology has been used in materials testing laboratories involving the mechanical application of random fatigue stresses statistically corresponding to actual conditions.

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The fatigue of materials involves a number of phenomena, including atomic slip and the onset and propagation of cracking. Therefore, the fatigue test may measure the number of cycles required to make a slit in addition to the number of cycles required for the material to collapse.

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Thermal Properties Test It deals with thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal expansion.

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Thermal conductivity: The heat that flows in a solid body by the physical transfer of free electrons and the vibrations of atoms and molecules cease to flow when temperatures are equal at all points of the solid body and also equal to the temperature of the surrounding environment. Total heat flow occurs in the body (when thermal equilibrium is reached) based on the thermal variation between the different thermal conductivity points experimentally by determining temperature over time along the length of the rod or on the surface of flat plates, while thermal external input and output from the rod surfaces or from the edges of the plate are controlled in real time.

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Specific heat: defined as the heat absorbed in one mass to cause a change of one degree of temperature. The specific heat of solids is generally measured by the drop method, which is immersed in a known mass of a substance of a known temperature in a mass of water with a temperature of known value, and then the equilibrium temperature of the resulting mixture is measured.

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The specific heat is then calculated by measuring the heat absorbed by the water and the vessel and is equal to the heat released by the hot substance.Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion is measured in a linear way and is defined as the change in one length of a material caused by a change in temperature by one degree. These measurements are made by means of microscopes because many materials are no more than fractions of a micrometer in length.

Electrical Properties Test

Understanding electrical properties requires a brief explanation of the free electron cloud theory of electrical conductivity because electrical conductivity is the flow of a stream of electrons in a solid body. Some materials, such as metals, are good conductors of electricity because they have free electrons that are not permanently linked to atoms, but rather form an electron cloud around the atoms and are free to move inside the solid body, while these electrons are bound, to some extent, in other materials such as plastics and do not form a free electronic cloud, so they resist the passage of current.

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Heat affects the electrical conductivity of carrier and insulating materials. While the conductivity of carriers decreases with increasing temperature, the electrical conductivity of insulating materials increases with this increase. Increasing the temperature leads to a significant increase in the number of free electrons in specific materials such as silicon, germanium and carbon called semiconductors, which act as insulators at absolute zero degrees and become a good carrier at room temperature. The alloy changes the conductivity of semiconductors by providing a number of free electrons.

The conductivity of a substance is usually measured by passing a current of known intensity at a constant voltage in a specified volume of material and determining the resistance in ohms, so that the total conductivity is equal to the reciprocal of the total resistance.

Rust, radiation and biological damage damage test

Tests for the breakdown and damage of materials when exposed to specific environmental conditions have increased in recent years. The mechanical and electrical properties of a material are often studied before, during and after exposure to these conditions to see how these properties change with the change of environmental conditions such as heat, humidity and/or pressure.

Corrosion: It is a chemical process in which electrons are removed from a substance and more stable compounds are formed, such as iron oxide, in which free electrons are less numerous. Corrosion compounds usually form on the surface of the metal, if these compounds are hard, deaf and well adhered to the metal, the development of corrosion stops, but if the compound is loose and influential, the corrosion continues quickly and continuously.

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Corrosion testing is performed to verify the action of metals and other materials in the presence of different electrolytes because of the similarity of the corrosion and electrolytic metal analysis processes.

The test may involve complete immersion of the metal, as in the case of seawater, exposure of the metal to salt fog, as in industrial chemical processing processes, or near oceans where salt water mixes with fog. The substances are generally dipped in a solution of sodium chlorine or calcium chlorine diluted with water and the concentration of this solution is five percent or twenty percent, or the solution may be sprayed in a chamber where the samples are free locket.

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The prolapse test is taken into account to prevent the condensation product from dripping from one sample to another, and the samples are exposed to this environment for some time and then raised and examined on the basis of the visible manifestations of corrosion. Mechanical-quantitative tests are often performed after the material has been subjected to corrosion to verify the decline in the mechanical properties of the material. Other test methods have also been developed to measure metal corrosion by studying gases coming out of flame lanes or chimneys.

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Radiation: Materials can be tested to react to electromagnetic X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, and atomic radiation that may contain neutrons released by uranium or other radioactive material. The materials most affected by these radiations are polymers such as organic compounds such as plastics and synthetic rubbers, which have long chains consisting of the repetition of a single chemical unit.

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Radiation tests are performed by exposing the material to a known radioactive source for a specified period of time and the robot can be used to expose the test material to nuclear fuel in a remote chamber and then test it with conventional methods to verify that its properties change according to the length of time it is exposed to radiation. Paint samples can be exposed to electromagnetic radiation such as sunlight for long periods and then examined for discoloration or cracking.

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Biological damage:There are tests to verify the resistance of organic materials to fungi, germs, algae, coatings, envelopes, pipeline coatings and building structures, all of which are susceptible to biological damage.

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When the biological composition of the soil in an area is unknown, colonies of their various fungi, spores or algae are isolated and incubated using standard laboratory techniques. They are then used to test materials for biological damage or to test the effectiveness of a fungicide or bacterial pesticide.

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When testing algae resistance, for example, slices of the material to be tested are taken, some coated with a thin vinyl coating and others left unpainted, and then immersed in germination ponds along with algae seed cultures, and within three days a fertile algal growth appears on uncoated vinyl models.

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Non-destructive tests

 

All previous tests are destructive tests, as the sample is destroyed during the process of collecting test information, and for this reason, such tests are acceptable only in cases of a source for many samples, and non-destructive tests are preferred when the sample is economically high or when its manufacture is high and stressful, and the following are some non-destructive tests:

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Ultrasonic tests:

 

Ultrasonic frequencies have been used to detect internal metal defects since 1928, and the method of detection in this way has many characteristics, including the high sensitivity of ultrasound, which enables the rapid detection of defects and determine their dimensions and location in the metal and in the connections, including the ability of these large waves to penetrate into the metal in addition to the low cost of control in this test.

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Characteristics of ultrasonic examination:

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The frequency of ultrasound waves exceeds 20,000 Hz and cannot be felt by the human ear, and they propagate in homogeneous materials in relatively straight lines, and are reflected at the boundaries of separation between two different materials or when heterogeneous structures are encountered in the material.

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Ultrasound is broadcast and recorded with electroacoustic transformers. The basis of these devices is a ceramic material with special specifications that enjoys the phenomenon of stress pressure, which is summarized in that the plate made of barium titanate or zirconate and lead titanate begins to vibrate mechanically under the influence of alternating electrical voltage attached to it, and emits a beam of vibrations perpendicular to the surface of the plate. On the other hand, on the opposite surfaces of the electric plate, under the influence of mechanical deformation, electrical charges arise in the form of alternating electric current, transmitted to the recording devices, and in this way, the electrical plate converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (in the form of ultrasonic frequencies) and vice versa, and these frequencies penetrate into the metal to be examined, provided that the air is removed between the contact surfaces of the transmitter and the tested piece, and provides acoustic contact between them by covering the surface of the piece with a layer of mineral oil or industrial glycerin.

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Material test by pulsed echo and shadow method: Ultrasonic materials are often examined by pulse echo, and the shadow method is rarely used. In the first method, the defect in the metal piece under examination is determined by the reflected beam of that defect and is indicated on the screen of the detector.

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The pulse echo test method (Fig. 3) consists of exposing the tested piece to short ultrasonic pulses (1) from the transmitter (T) and then recording the echo signals (2) reflected by the defect at the receiver (R), and the presence of the defect indicates the appearance of pulse (3) on the detector screen.

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When adopting the shadow method, the evidence of the defect is the decrease in the amplitude of the signal (4) passing from the transmitter to the receiver, and this method enables the use of continuous emission rather than pulse emission, and Figure 4 shows the pulse diagrams on the cathode tube, and the sounding signal or pulse appears on the device screen from the left of the figure The sounding signal or pulse at the exit of the transmitter appears, and from the right of the figure and to the end of the scan line the pulse reflected from the wall opposite the piece.

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In the event of a defect in the piece, the echo signal reflected from it is located in the field between the probing signal and the reflected signal, and then the placement of the echo signal on the screen corresponds to the depth of the defect site in the metal, according to the following ratio:

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In the event of a defect in the piece, the echo signal reflected from it is located in the field between the probing signal and the reflected signal, and then the placement of the echo signal on the screen corresponds to the depth of the defect site in the metal, according to the following ratio: …

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As the dimensions of the defect increase, the echo signal reflected from it increases, the amplitude of the signal reflected from the opposite wall decreases, and it can disappear completely if the defect has a large reflective distance.

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In addition to the cathode tube, modern detectors are equipped with automatic alert technologies with a light or acoustic indicator alerting to the defect, and detectors equipped with digital computers have recently appeared.

 

Z1 = t1

Z2 t2

Based on

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t1 – the time required between the probing signal and the reflection of the defect.

 

t – the time required between the probing and reflected signal.

 

z1 – defect distance from the metal surface.

 

Z2 – thickness of the metal from the surface to the bottom.